Peripheral Learning Reference Guide

Peripheral Perception
Information Processing Without Awareness

compiled and edited

E. Taylor, R. Sadana and R. Bey
Progressive Awareness Research ISBN: 1-55978-030-4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To those whose work fill these pages, the authors extend their deepest gratitude for both the research and the courage necessary to venture off the beaten path and into the fringes, as all pioneers must do.

Special acknowledgement is also due the following individuals for their efforts in dialogue, review, ideas, support and encouragement:

Professor Wm. Guillory
Dr. Don Morgan
Dr. Jim Seidel
Dr. Charles McCusker
Catherine Sanders
Mr. Steve Fisher
Mr. Lee Liston and the Ut. State Prison Staff and lastly, but certainly not in order of importance, we wish to acknowledge you the reader, who this reference was assembled for.

Thank you !

FORWARD

The material in this reference has been organized alphabetically and chronologically. The field of subliminal science is so rapidly expanding that we, as compilers and editors, were literally reviewing, writing and editing the contents of this work right up to the day before it left for press.

The information was verified by use of the Dialog Information Service.

Our desire was, and is, to create a reference work. We were mixed about its form only because of our feelings that it should be expandable. Finally the decision to bind blank pages for your notes opposite each print page was settled upon. This way comments and new studies could be made and updated while not disturbing either the organization or the quality of the work.

It is our sincerest hope that you find this format both convenient and durable.

Thank you,

The Editors

INTRODUCTION

On numerous occasions Progressive Awareness Research has been asked to provide some sort of review of the literature regarding perception without awareness or what popularly is known as subliminal communication. Since this is a field of our expertise we have repeatedly been called upon to explain the process in terms that anyone could understand.

What follows is a simple explanation developed by our president, Dr. Eldon Taylor and a review of the literature with brief comments relevant to the various findings produced in the different studies.

Our own research is ongoing with studies underway at the time of this writing at, or in conjunction with, Colorado State University, Weber State College and the University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh. Planned studies for the future include incorporating "negative" messages in an audio subliminal tape to determine if alleged messages in heavy metal recordings do indeed adversely effect the listener.

It is the opinion of Progressive Awareness Research that there is no reasonable doubt remaining regarding the presence of perception without awareness. What remains to be thoroughly researched is the behavioral effects for both short- and long-term periods. In Dr. Taylor's words, "What is really now at question is the power of language. If language indeed creates inappropriate responses that we term maladaptive then it stands to reason that language has the possibility to reverse this process. In other words, if one has been raised to believe that they are no good, due largely in part to words that were so stated, then is it possible to alter this belief by addressing the subconscious with positive words? I believe so."

We at Progressive Awareness Research hope that what follows provides insights to those who desire to contribute to the quality of the human experience. We encourage all to share their findings in an effort to sophisticate each other's understanding of the human condition. We are proud and happy to be able to share our findings as well as a review of the work of many dedicated researchers.

Although this literature review has been checked and re-checked for errors, the nature of the work is such that some errors may still remain. If you come across any errors or omissions, we would be very grateful if you would inform us.

THE CONTROVERSY

Research in the fields of hypnosis and subliminal stimuli has demonstrated the effectiveness of words delivered while in trance to produce a great number of effects, both physiological and psychological. Still, a number of research findings further suggest that a great controversy regarding the results of certain audio subliminal tape studies divided the academic field of psychologists on the general efficacy of any subliminally presented message when delivered in an audio modality. A thorough review of this controversy yielded great differences in technical methods used to produce audio tapes.

Unlike visual subliminal technology, which is normally either accomplished via slide insertion, Tachistoscope or candle power ratios, audio subliminal programs are produced by commercial companies who use as many different methods to create a tape as there are companies. Researchers in the field seem to have all to often overlooked the basics of chemistry when attempting to replicate others findings and\or to produce new results from expanded hypotheses. Often, therefore, the psychological researcher has forgotten that science requires exacting methods including the basics of technical creation, like the temperature a gas is heated to, in order to verify another's findings. One such study was conducted (this year) by a doctoral student in the Philosophy of Psychology at the California School of Professional Psychology. She employed a tape produced by a commercial company to measure the effect of subliminal auditory stimuli on academic learning and motor skills performance among police cadets. Her findings indicate that "neither music nor music with subliminal messages improved" either learning or motor skills. (Lenz, 1989).

Careful examination of her documentation however indicates that the tape producer created the audio subliminal at 40 to 50 decibels beneath the music. (Ibid). When the psychologist is ignorant of electronics this is perhaps an understandable error since most players utilized to play subliminal messages have a dynamic range of less than 50 db. Nevertheless, a clear theoretical limit of perception thresholds does exist in the literature and as such should have been reviewed. Despite these comments many research projects have been conducted without an eye to the technical and theoretical aspects of magnetic media and audiology. Research designed without an awareness of the technical aspects offer protocol that produces statistics, all of which says absolutely nothing about subliminal stimuli; rather they speak to technical inadequacies.

A yet unannounced 3 part study by Anthony Greenwald et al, employed tapes from four commercial companies. The results indicate that no statistical difference exists between the placebo groups and the test groups. However, when asked, Greenwald admits that he knows nothing of the technical design of these tapes and cannot release the names of the manufacturers. In essence, therefore, the results speak only of the four companies, their methods, etc., and not audio subliminal stimuli.

In my various books I often discuss technical inadequacies that are passed off as "silent voices" or audio subliminal stimuli. The bottom line is simple: NO voice is not subliminal. You cannot create an audio subliminal stimuli by lowering the speech into or beneath the sound floor of magnetic media.

Thank You,

Eldon Taylor

UNDERSTANDING SUBLIMINAL

In the many lectures I have presented in the United States and Europe there has always been a nagging need to find an analogy that could accurately describe what occurs with the users of subliminal audio tapes. I have worked with the construct of peripheral perception to describe the manner in which voices speaking positive affirmations to the subconscious can, and do indeed, impress the listener even though they are unaware consciously of the process.

Peripheral perception is normally thought of as that aspect of sight that borders on the fringes of how far out to ones right or left side one cansee . The fringe always has clarity problems. That is, one may report the ability to see an object to their side, and even slightly behind them, but the further the object moves toward the limit of vision the less clear the object becomes. In a very real sense, and yet only as a model of understanding, this is a substantially similar process to the manner in which audio perception occurs.

The fringe is known as "threshold" and the audio threshold is established by determining the point at which the conscious mind can hear a particular sound, 50% of the time. A threshold is that place where sometimes one hears the signal and other times they do not. When a subliminal audio tape is created properly the messages are sometimes audible and sometimes not. The entire message may not be understood but the voices are acknowledged by the conscious mind as being there; or, in other words, from time to time one hears the message even though they do not understand every word. Similar to the limit of our peripheral sight, where we see an object but without the clarity that comes from looking directly at it, subliminal audio messages are sometimes heard but without the clarity that the conscious mind is accustomed to requiring in order for it to repeat the message. Still, research shows that the subconscious absolutely does recognize signals too weak for the conscious mind to recognize.

The comparison of peripheral sight to the audio perception of a subliminal stimuli continues to be a model that serves the purpose of communicating very complex issues in a clear way. The analogy of what happens to the user of the audio subliminal tape as they use it was much more difficult for me until a friend and I sat down to discuss just that. As we talked over our personal experiences with subliminal programs it became very obvious that our benefit had been gradual and from the inside out, almost intuitive in its inner direction. Often, only when the affirmations contained on the tape were reread did we have one of those "aha's" that acknowledged consciously why certain aspects of our drives and emotions and therefore behavior had changed.

Intuitive perception is just what seems to take place when you work with a subliminal program. One day you act differently because you are thinking differently. Gentle nudges from the inner mind, just like those that are intuitive, begin to guide one's choices. In my friends instance, Professor Bill Guillory, creativity became natural. New ideas, concepts and the like just seem to flow through him. Later he experienced successes with different programs but they were in process substantially the same as with the first tape: I Am Creative.

My experiences have been all akin to his. At first there seems to be little noticeable change but after a few days things just seem to have a different arrangement. One day I was afraid of public speaking to the point that I would do almost anything, invent almost any excuse, just to avoid it. Then it was like the next day public speaking was tolerable, and the following day I was excited about the opportunity to share with others. Today lectures, workshops, radio and television "stuff" is just something I do like any other activity I engage in.

What we believe in our subconscious is who and what we are! The conscious mind can only guess at what is contained in the subconscious while the subconscious has every thought the conscious will ever have long before the conscious thinks it. In order to change we need to change the way we think. Speaking directly to the subconscious is verbal subliminal messages that do just that. What's more, their power seems in part to reside in the fact that the conscious mind with its defense mechanisms can not argue with the positive affirmations. One day there just seems to be more positive than negative information in the subconscious and that wonderful bio-computer changes old equations and so do we! Our pursuits are consistent with our inner beliefs about ourselves and the world around us and almost magically those goals, ideals and ambitions are ours!

SUBCONSCIOUS MIND POWER

Everyone I have ever met or interacted with, everyone I have ever read or listened to, in fact every single human being from my experience has, at one time or another, desired to change something about themselves and found it to be exceedingly difficult, if not sometimes impossible. Still, there are many who alter various aspects of their behavior and beliefs successfully. The questions seem obvious: what does it take to realize each of our total potentials, and why do we sometimes succeed and at other times find only disappointing results?

When it comes to personal development there are a variety of so called "experts," with as many solutions as there are problems. Nevertheless, all of these specialists suggest, if not state directly, that the real power in the human development schema is that of the subconscious mind. If this is so, why then can I not just instruct my subconscious mind to think differently and produce the results I desire?

The fact is that the subconscious mind is basically indiscriminate in the manner in which it accepts information. The problem then is twofold. First, there are already years of indiscriminate acceptance in my mind, and second, I act in reliance upon this information.

All the statements that have ever been accepted are present in our subconscious minds, and for most of us that is negative programming. Some behaviorists have used numbers that indicate that for every one input of positive messaging there are 100 bits of negative!

How many times have each of us said to ourselves things like, "I can't do it," or, "It never works for me" and so forth? How many times have each of us heard statements like, "You're not old enough," "That's stupid," "Money is the source of all evil," "Life is difficult and then you die," "Thank god it's Friday," "That will never work" and so on?

Just for fun I once started a list of statements that I had heard or said to myself that created negative expectations. I quit when I realized that to complete the list would take more time and paper than I was willing to dedicate to such a nonsensical task. Still, the message was, and is, loud and clear: the language programming many of my beliefs was essentially negative!

The consequence of this negative programming has been likened to that of a computer. The bio-computer brain/mind has accepted negative input just like a calculator accepts negative numbers. Then you or I add a few positive numbers to the program total and some how expect change.

The fact that we act in reliance upon the information accepted indiscriminantly by our subconscious minds, is a more pervasive problem. This means that if negative messages have caused us pain or fear then we adapt our behavior, our beliefs, around avoiding those circumstances and/or outcomes.

With this adaptation comes choices. Most of our choices of this nature are deeply rooted in the subconscious. Our subliminal beliefs, those beliefs in the subconscious that arise from our desire to be accepted and to avoid pain, humiliation and rejection, determine our actions. All behavior is behavior of choice even if the choice is made at a subconscious level. Now what happens is that we build defense mechanisms in order to protect us from former bad experiences and possible future rejection.

These defense mechanisms often defeat our own best interest. It is true, for many of us, our worst enemy is often ourselves. Ignorant of these dynamics it is easy to see why well over 90% of the people who attend or participate in motivational gatherings or products are unsuccessful. The fact is, every time we tell ourselves something like "I am good!" The subconscious gives a thought to the conscious such as "Really! What about ------?"

Even when the behavior we desire is something as simple as success in our work place, these subliminal beliefs come into play. For example, when I ask a group of people how many of them would like to come up front and speak to the audience for five minutes on some topic I will assign them, rarely does anyone volunteer. A common fear is that somehow they will suffer deep embarrassment, humiliation and more. Now this same group of people will respond unanimously to the simple straight forward question: Do you want to be successful in business? Their answer is always yes!

In order to succeed in business one must learn to speak publicly. If there is a deep abiding fear of public speaking and a desire to be successful, there are contradictory drives present in the psyche. What usually happens is that a person reaches a certain level of success, and then for some inexplicable reason everything changes. What may be seen as outside circumstances changing, is in truth, more often than not, inner change. The closer one gets to that point where the opposite drive, in this instance the fear of public speaking, becomes imminent, the more powerful the exertion by subconscious processes to eliminate the impending threat.

Consequently these two factors or mechanics of our own psyche's often defeat our stated desires without our conscious awareness. The power of hypnosis exists largely in the direct communication with the subconscious. The conscious mind is essentially in abeyance during hypnosis although one's defense mechanisms can still play a significant role in the relative success of it's use. The advantage of subliminal communication is that it bypasses all conscious awareness. Unlike hypnosis, where attention and conscious assistance are often necessary, subliminal messages are not attended to by the conscious mind in any necessary manner whatsoever. (Still, there can be great power added to the subliminal stimuli from simply reading the messages once a week as one works with a program). The important point is that conscious attention is not only not required, but during usage, actually counter productive in many instances to the subliminal advantage.

The messages on an audio subliminal tape eventually overtake the negative information contained in the subconscious. When this happens the subliminal beliefs that formerly were self limiting begin to change. As they change---so do we!

Life is indeed a miracle and each of us is entitled to experience the highest qualities of our birthright. This is even more possible than in years past with today's modern technology, and with today's problems, it is even more appropriate than in any time in our planets history.

Good luck on your journey and enjoy exploring your full potential today!

HISTORY

The popular history of subliminal communication is really a history of modern subliminal manipulation.

Vance Packard's Hidden Persuaders, which appeared in 1957, quotes from the Sunday Times an account of a New Jersey theater in which ice cream ads were flashed onto the screen during a movie showing. That resulted in an otherwise unaccountable increase in ice cream sales. The Times referred to this technology as "subthreshold effects."

Packard's work warned of psychologists-turned-merchandisers and of the resulting psychoseduction of the American consumer. From belief systems to product identification, Packard presented a case for persuasion through the art and science of motivational analysis, feedback, and psychological manipulation. Hidden Persuaders was the first open attempt to inform the general public of a potentially Orwellian means to enslave the mind and to do so surreptitiously.

Wilson Brian Key in his books Subliminal Seduction and Clam Plate Orgy argues that not only are we being subliminally merchandised today but the public has been subliminally seduced for hundreds of years. Key, a Canadian professor, sums it all up in the title to his third book on the subject, The Age of Manipulation.

In my own work, Subliminal Communication, I discussed the earliest modern reference I have found on the subject of subliminal communication. According to Wolman, subliminal research is at least as old as Suslowa's work in 1863 wherein he reported "an increase in the two-point discrimination threshold as a function of subliminal electrical stimulation." (1973). In 1894 W.R. Dunham, M.D., wrote an interesting commentary on the subliminal mind and subliminal communication. Nearly one hundred years later, Dunham's essay reads much like current research on the subject. In The Science of Vital Force, Dunham demonstrated the existence of both subliminal mind and subliminal communication.

One of Freud's most important contributions to approaching the enigma known as the human condition is the stark revelation that mankind is a mere particle of his potential. Unconscious processes predetermine conscious choices and therefore behavior. Aggregates of attitude and behavior constitute personality. Personality is rather rigid, and consequently the human condition is an abysmal shadow of itself. What is more, according to Freud, it is inherently in conflict with itself.

A contemporary of Sigmund Freud, Dr. O. Poetzle, studied subliminal perception and the subsequent effect on dreams and behavior days and weeks after the original stimuli.

Professor Wolman's modified categorization of subliminal stimuli, divides descriptive values into five criteria of awareness and unawareness. The stimuli is:

1.Below the level of registration.

2.Above the level of registration but below the level of detection.

3.Above the level of detection but below the level of stimulus discrimination.

4.Above the level of detection and discrimination but below

the level of identification.

5.Below the level of identification only because of a defensive reaction. (1973).

Wolman makes several general statements regarding subliminal stimulation, having come to certain conclusions based upon his erudite research. Although maintaining a cautious stance, he asserts:

1. Subliminal stimulus does leave an influence upon the content of subsequent cognition.

2. Subliminal stimuli has affected and can affect secondary-process thinking.

3. There are neurophysiological findings which appear to concur with registration without awareness.

4. Despite some failures of replication there are numerous instances where subliminal stimuli "can measurably influence a variety of subject's subsequent behaviors."

5.Conscious thinking can be influenced by stimulus outside of awareness.

In 1981 Dr. Norman Dixon summarized over 748 references on subliminal stimulation in his scholarly book Preconscious Processing. Dixon provides a model for understanding the flow of information and its entry to consciousness. According to his model, five factors govern whether a stimulus surfaces at a conscious level: direction of attention, signal strength, external noise level, internal noise levels, and signal importance (meaning).

The wrongful death action brought against Judas Priest and CBS recently in Reno, has led to a judicial interpretation regarding subliminal communication and 1st amendment rights. Judge Whitehead's opinion can be found in the section of this work titled Legal Status.

First amendment rights have often been at issue when the jurisprudence process becomes involved with subliminal stimuli. Current trends, however, tend to exclude subliminal communication from protection under our freedom of speech rights. The Honorable Jerry Carr Whitehead, District Judge in the State of Nevada, eloquently argues that indeed subliminal communication violates first amendment liberties when covertly or surreptitiously employed. (See Whitehead, 1989 herein).

Whatever ultimate interpretations or direction of the controversy, one thing is quite certain, "subliminals" (used here as a noun referring to the general nature of their type of communication) are here to stay.

THEORETICAL MODELS OF SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION

Several theoretical models accommodate subliminal perception within traditional psychology. In fact, it could be asserted that subliminal perception is absolutely implicit within them. Three such models, which are aspects of the psychoanalytic theory of cognition, are set out by Wolman:

First there is the "day-residue" model. One kind of day residue is the recent, indifferent, barely noticed, unassimilated impression. According to psychoanalytic theory, such material is "selected" for dreams precisely because of its manifest lack of psychic significance; it resonates with unconscious, infantile wishes and emerges in dreams as a derivative cognitive representation of the drive, owing to the requirements of censorship and the nature of unconscious thinking. The Poetzl experiment and its variants are based on this model, but depart from it in several ways.

The second model is that of Freud's view of preconscious thinking, in which he assumed that such thinking tends to be spread out over a wider network of associations than is the case in conscious thought. The direction of preconscious thinking can be biased by unconscious motives and sets ("guiding ideas"). The studies of Spence et. al. are based on this model. The subliminal stimulus is expected to bias the preconscious stream of thought, especially if there is a boost from unconscious or conscious motives.

The third model, evident mainly in Silverman's (1967) work, is Freud's conception of unconscious motivation conflict and defense. This model assumes that a subliminal input raises the activation level of existing unconscious motives and that it can therefore be considered analogous to an internally generated increase in the intensity of unconscious motives (1973).

Wolman continues:

These three models are combined in the concept of "schema" activation proposed by Klein and Holt (1960). They assume that memory schemata are activated by sets, by relevant incoming stimuli, and by drives. Under appropriate conditions, marginal inputs are likely to activate drive-related ideas and lead to an effect. This conceptualization is elaborated by Klein (1956, 1970) in terms of a model of motivation in perception which stresses the interplay of executive and concurrently active peripheral motives in relation to their accessibility to awareness, and as determinants of what is focal versus subsidiary in perceptual experience. If subliminal stimuli are considered as a special case of incidental or peripheral activation, then this model constitutes a promising way to understand the interaction of the variables studied in subliminal research.

I consider perception to be the fundamental determinator of behavior and favor a modified gestaltian theory of perception. That is, perception is always as wholes. Attention is not necessary to perception, and sensations are collective aggregates of information, which by definition of the word attention go largely undiscriminated by awareness. (See Subliminal Learning). Further, it is more likely that all three of the afore mentioned models operate concurrently rather than individually to the exclusion of the others.

Regardless of perception theories, registration and perception per se are independent, and without an unconscious awareness or subconscious learning dynamic there exists no basis to psychology. Drives, motives and so on, cannot be strictly of conscious perception origin. The unconscious must be more than a repository for the conscious mind's direct (cognitive) experience and/or indirect interpretive accumulation. Be that as it may (or as it may not be, if you prefer), as Wolman states:

"Contrary to popular belief, a good theory is not necessarily one that answers all questions, leaving nothing more to be done in a field , but rather it is one that opens up new problems and new avenues of investigation." (1973).

THE LEGAL STATUS OF SUBLIMINAL COMMUNICATION IN AMERICA

The nature of judicial interpretation regarding subliminal communication is rapidly becoming more of a legal concern than legislation to those employing subliminal stimuli in any form.

As such, this section was added to the original format of the text to include a legal historical perspective. Although the law in regard to subliminal stimuli has been discussed in the past in two of my books, the precise rulings and circumstances leading to the same have not. In fact, as difficult as some of the material is in terms of its access, this discussion would not occur now but for the efforts of Honorable Jerry C. Whitehead. Judge Whitehead essentially compiled the relevant history in response to a motion for dismissal that arose in the Judas Priest case in the Second Judicial District Court of Nevada in and for the county of Washoe. The following is therefore taken in large from Judge Whitehead's remarks.

DEFINITION

The legal definition of subliminal communication is generally taken to be "the projection of messages by light or sound so quickly or faintly that they are received by the listener below the level of conscious awareness." (Cited for reference are "The Subconcious Taken Captive: A social, ethical, and legal analysis of subliminal communication technology", 54 S. Cal. L. Rev. 1077, 1080 (1981) and "Privacy and Freedom" 279 (1970)).

LEGAL HISTORY

In 1957, James Vicary of Subliminal Projection Co., Inc. announced special equipment that would place subliminal messages in the advertising industry. He cited as a success story the now infamous New Jersey Theater that superimposed the messages "drink Coca-Cola" and "hungry? Eat popcorn" on the movie screen during a showing of the movie Picnic. Vicary claimed up to a 58% increase in relevant sales following the presentations. Shortly after Vicary`s announcement, the major networks announced that they would not accept subliminal advertising "or employ the technique on their radio or television productions."

This initial public controversy was generally met with an outcry. In the words of Judge Whitehead, the historical response to the current controversy continued as:

A typical response by the press is found in the following quote from the Saturday Review:

"The subconscious mind is the most delicate part of the most delicate apparatus in the entire universe. It is not to be smudged, sullied, or twisted in order to boost the sales of popcorn or anything else. Nothing is more difficult in the modern world than to protect the privacy of the human soul." (Smudging the Subconcious, Saturday Rev., Oct. 5, 1957).

Judge Whitehead continues:

In refusing to employ such technology, CBS stated:

"The legal, social and ethical implications raised by subliminal perception as we understand it are sufficient to preclude it from use in any form in the CBS Television Network and our Company owned stations. Furthermore, it has been and will continue to be our policy to insist that all advertising messages are clearly identified as such to our viewers." (Bliss, supra, p. 12, at 437 (quoting from 6 NARTS, Television Code Subscriber Bulletin, No. 8 at 1 (Dec. 1975)).

The Television Board of the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) amended the Television Code to include the following provision:

"The use of the television medium to transmit information of any kind by the use of the process called "subliminal perception," or by the use of any similar technique whereby an attempt is made to convey information to the viewer by transmitting messages below the threshold of normal awareness is not permitted." (Bliss, supra, p. 12, at 435 (quoting from NEWS FROM NAB, Mar. 26, 1958).

Legislation to prohibit the use of subliminal communication was also introduced in Congress; however, no hearings were ever held and the bills died in committee. (Westin, supra, p. 11, at 282-283; Bliss, supra, p. 12, at 426-427).

The reaction against subliminal perception was greater than Vicary expected, prompting him to claim that if subliminal communications were banned by the government, he would go to the Supreme Court to protect his free speech right to use subliminal messages. (Westin, supra, p. 12, at 288).

Following Vicary's press conference, several radio and television stations experimented with subliminal communication with mixed results. (Note, First Amendment dialogue and Subliminal Messages, 11 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 331, 332 (1983); Westin, supra p.12, at 289-290).

In 1962, CBS received some unwanted publicity when an announcer for "To Tell The Truth" informed the national viewing audience that subliminal messages were inserted in the regular program credits. After receiving numerous complaints from viewers and an arresting complaint from the FCC, CBS stated that the announcement was a hoax. (Note, supra, p. 14, at 332-333).

Much of the controversy surrounding subliminal messages faded until the Christmas of 1973 when several viewers complained to the FTC and the FCC about the presence of the subliminal message "Get It" in a national television commercial for "Husker-Du," a children's game. The Premium Corporation of America voluntarily removed the commercial from the air, claiming that the subliminal message was inserted in the commercial by a misguided employee. (Note, supra, p. 14, at 333; Bliss, supra, p. 12, at 425).

As a result of the complaints received from the "Husker-Du" incident, the FCC issued a public notice wherein the agency stated:

"We believe that use of subliminal perception is inconsistent with the obligations of a licensee, and therefore we take this occasion to make clear that broadcasters employing such techniques are contrary to the public interest. Whether effective or not, such broadcasts clearly are intended to be deceptive.

In closing, we note that the Federal Trade Commission also received a complaint about the pre-Christmas announcements, and that it is making inquiry into the matter in light of the laws that it administers."

(Note, supra, p. 14, at 358 (quoting from FCC PUBLIC NOTICE, Broadcast of Information by Means of "Subliminal Perception Techniques", FCC 74-78, 2 (Jan. 24, 1974), 39 Fed. Reg. 3714 (1974)).

Although subliminal communications appear to be a novelty, the following discussion illustrates that their presence in our society is more pervasive that many would suppose.

In 1971, Inflight Motion Pictures, Inc. announced in The New York Times that it would begin selling subliminal advertisements to be imbedded in the films distributed to the airlines. (Bliss, supra, p. 12, at 424 (citing N.Y. Times, Dec. 8, 1971, at 108 col. 6)).

Warner Brothers has acknowledged that a subliminal death mask was used in the motion picture, "The Exorcist." (In Through the Out Door, Omni Magazine, 45, pp 47-48 (Feb. 1981)).

Subliminal messages are also being used in attempts to control weight, reduce stress, treat compulsive behavior, increase real estate sales, discourage shoplifting, reduce employee turnover, and to quit smoking. (Key, W.B. Subliminal Seduction, 70 A.B.A.J. 25, 26 (July 1984); Note, supra, p. 14, at 333, 334; Note, supra, p. 11, at 1083-84).

Another company has developed and patented audio equipment which mixes subliminal messages in Music. (Note, supra, p. 14, at 334). Approximately fifty department stores have installed this audio equipment to imbed the message, "I am honest; I will not steal," in the music broadcast throughout the store. (Secret Voices, Time, Sept. 10, 1979, at 71; Kiesel, supra at 26).

Recently declassified government documents indicate that the Central Intelligence Agency has considered using subliminal communication to implant suggestions or commands and to influence the results of political elections. Some of these documents indicate that government use of subliminal techniques could be accomplished on a widespread basis without having to disclose their use because of national security reasons. (Note, supra, p. 11, at 1083, 1086 (citing Lee, The CIA's Subliminal Seduction, High Times, 96 (Feb. 1980)).

In 1984, the California Assembly passed a bill requiring that people be notified if they are about to be subjected to subliminal communications in a public place. (Gurnick, Subliminal Advertising: Threat to Consumer Autonomy?, 21 Bev. Hills Bar Journal, 56, p. 70 (1987)). However, the Senate Judiciary Committee never acted upon the bill and it died in the Senate.

The author of the bill claimed that undisclosed use of subliminal messages was an invasion of privacy. While the American Civil Liberties Union was opposed to the use of subliminal communication, it did not support the bill because, in its opinion, it would have created a private cause of action which would have chilled speech. The ACLU stated that any such litigation should be handled by the state attorney general as a fraud against consumers. (Kiesel, supra, p. 16, at 26).

The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms has adopted regulations prohibiting alcohol advertisements which contain subliminal messages on the basis that they are deceptive advertising. The pertinent regulation states:

(h) Deceptive advertising techniques. Subliminal or similar techniques are prohibited. "Subliminal or similar techniques," as used in this part, refers to any device or technique that is used to convey, or attempts to convey, a message to a person by means of images or sounds of a very brief nature that cannot be perceived at a normal level of awareness. (27 C.F.R. sec, 5.65 (h) (1988)).

The foregoing discussion illustrates that subliminal communication techniques are more common than one would expect. However, the full extent to which subliminal communication is being used today in television, music, movies, videos, and other mediums is not known. This is partly due to the fact that such messages are not intended to be consciously perceived and partly due to the fact that no governmental agency is monitoring their use.

Judge Whitehead continues with a very eloquent examination of First Amendment rights as they pertain to subliminal communication. As such, the author's choose to continue to quote him at length:

ARE SUBLIMINAL MESSAGES PROTECTED SPEECH?

The threshold question for the Court to resolve is whether the audio subliminal commands alleged by the plaintiffs to be imbedded in the "Stained Class" album are protected by the First Amendment.

If the audio subliminal commands are protected speech, we must dismiss the plaintiff's action. However, if the Court concludes that they are not protected speech, we must then decide whether, under the factual circumstances of this case, there is a triable issue of fact as to whether the subliminal communications were a legal cause of the December 23, 1985 shootings.

The Court approaches this issue with great respect for the First Amendment and with an appreciation for the basic rights which it necessarily protects. It allows people to speak upon political, social and religious issues. It allows us to criticize and question authority and power. It allows individuals to artistically express themselves without undue fear of censorship. Perhaps no other constitutional right guarantees such expansive freedom as does the First Amendment. It is the key to the retention of all our other freedoms.

Although the First Amendment has a preferred position in the hierarchy of constitutional rights, the Supreme Court has never held the right of free speech to be absolute at all times and under all circumstances. Consequently, it has articulated certain well-defined and narrowly drawn classes of speech which are not protected. Thus, for example, an individual may not seek protection in the First Amendment if he: (1) counsels and encourages another to commit murder; (2) libels another person; (3) commits perjury; or (4) engages in bribery.

In considering whether subliminal communication is protected by speech, the defendants have urged the Court to apply the incitement standard enunciated by the Supreme Court in Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 89 S. Ct. 1827 (1969). As this Court has repeatedly stated, if the only issue before us were whether the lyrics of the song were protected speech, the Court would follow the incitement standard in Brandenburg and hold that the lyrics were protected speech. (See McCollum v. CBS, Inc., 202 Cal. App. 3d 989, 249 Cal. Rptr. 187 (1988)).

However, the Court believes that the constitutional issues raised by the use of subliminal communication are so entirely different than those raised by the use of supraliminal music lyrics that a proper determination of whether subliminal communication is protected speech cannot be accomplished by applying Brandenburg.

The Supreme Court has stated that doctrines of standards developed in one context should not be mechanically applied in another context. The Supreme Court has further stated that "each medium of expression must be assessed for First Amendment purposes by standards suited to it, for each may present its own problems."(Southeastern Promotions, Ltd. v. Conrad, 420 U.S. 546, 557, 95 S. Ct. 1239, 1246 (1975)). This principle was reaffirmed in Metromedia, Inc. v. City of San Diego, 453 U.S. 490, 101 S. Ct. 2882 (1981), wherein the plurality decision stated that "each method of communicating ideas is a `law unto itself' and that law must reflect the `differing natures, values, abuses and dangers' of each method." 95 S. Ct. at 2889 (quoting from Justice Jackson's remarks in Kovacs v. Cooper, 336 U.S. 77, 97, 69 S. Ct. 448, 459 (1949); see also FCC v. Pacifica Found., 438 U.S. 726, 748, 98 S. Ct. 3026, 3039 (1978). (Each medium of expression presents special First Amendment problems); Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson, 343 U.S. 495, 503, 72 S. Ct. 777, 781 (1952) (Each method of expression tends to create its own peculiar problems)).

Justice Frankfurter's concurring opinion in Kovacs emphasized the danger of mechanically applying judicial formulas. Therein he stated:

"It is argued that the Constitution protects freedom of speech: Freedom of speech means the right to communicate, whatever the physical means for so doing; sound tracks are one form of communication; ergo that form is entitled to the same protection as any other means of communication, whether by tongue or pen. Such sterile argumentation treats society as though it consisted of bloodless categories. The various forms of modern so-called `mass communications' raise issues that were not implied in the means of communication known or contemplated by Franklin and Jefferson and Madison." (69 s.Ct. at 458).

Unfortunately, the Court has no direct precedent to rely upon in deciding whether subliminal communication is protected by the First Amendment. Consequently, we approach the subject matter of this motion much the same as Justice Douglas did in Public Utils. Comm'n v. Pollak, 343 U.S. 451 72 S. Ct. 813 (1952), when he stated "this is a case of first impression. There are no precedents to construe; no principles previously expounded to apply. We write on a clean slate." (72 S. Ct. at 823).

After giving careful consideration to the merits of this case, the Court concludes that the audio subliminal communications allegedly contained in the defendant's music recordings are not entitled to first Amendment protection. The Court bases this conclusion on three grounds. These are: (A) subliminal communication does not advance any of the purposes of free speech; (B) an individual has a First Amendment right to be free from unwanted speech; and (C) the listener's right of privacy outweighs the speaker's right of free speech when subliminal speech is used. The Court turns to discuss each of these.

A. Subliminal Messages Do Not Advance Any Theories Supporting Free Speech.

Although the case law involving freedom of speech is voluminous, the Supreme Court's first major encounters with free speech claims did not occur until shortly after World War I. However, despite its short history in the courts, no other constitutional right appears to have generated as much controversy and emotion as freedom of speech.

Several major theories have been advanced to justify the protection given to free speech. They are: (1) the marketplace of ideas: (2) representative democracy and self-government; and (3) individual self-fulfillment and self-realization.

The marketplace of ideas is perhaps the most widely recognized theory. It was first articulated by Justice Holmes in his dissent in Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 40 S. Ct. 17 (1919), wherein he stated:

"The ultimate good desired is better reached by free trade in ideas--that the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market, and that truth is the only ground upon which their wishes safely can be carried out. That at any rate is the theory of our Constitution." (40 S. Ct. at 22).

This theory was subsequently approved by the Supreme Court in Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC, 395 U.S. 367, 390, 89 S. Ct. 1794, 1806 (1969), wherein Justice White stated that "it is the purpose of the First Amendment to preserve an uninhibited marketplace of ideas in which truth will ultimately prevail."

The beginnings of this theory are found in the early writings of John Milton and John Stuart Mill. (Retunda, Nowak & Young, Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure, sec. 20.6 (1986)).

In his tract, Areopagitica, Milton said:

"Though all the winds of doctrine were let loose to play upon the earth, so truth be in the field, we do injuriously, by licensing and prohibiting, to misdoubt her strength. Let her and falsehood grapple; whoever knew truth put to the worse in a free and open encounter." (Id. (quoting J. Milton, Areopacitica, A Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, (1644); G. Gunther, Constitutional Law 978 (11th ed. 1985)).

Two centuries later in his 1859 essay, On Liberty, Mill discussed the public benefit which results from the free exchange of ideas. He wrote:

First, if any opinion is compelled to silence, that opinion for aught we can certainly know, be true. To deny this is to assume our own infallibility. Secondly, though this silenced opinion be error, it may and very commonly does, contain a portion of the truth; and since the generally prevailing opinion on any subject is rarely or never the whole truth, it is only by the collision of adverse opinions that the remainder of the truth had any chance being supplied. Thirdly, even if the received opinion be not only true but the whole truth; unless it is suffered to be, and actually is, vigorously and earnestly contested, it will, by most of those who receive it, be held in the manner of a prejudice, with little comprehension of feeling of its rational grounds. And not only this, but fourthly, the meaning of the doctrine itself will be in danger of being enfeebled. (Rotunda, Nowak & Young, supra p. 19, sec. 20.26 (quoting J.S. Mill, On Liberty, (1859).

A second major theory offered to justify why free speech is protected by the First Amendment is that free speech is essential to intelligent self-government in a democratic system. (L. Tribe, American Constitutional Law 786 (2nd ed. 1988); G. Gunther, Constitutional Law, 976 (11th ed. 1985)). Under this approach, the First Amendment would provide absolute protection for public discussion of political issues and would provide only minimal due-process protection for discussion of non-political issues.

The third major theory offered to justify protection of speech is that it promotes individual self-fulfillment and self-realization. (Rotunda, Nowak & Young, supra, p. 19, at 15; Redish, The Value of Free Speech, 130 U. Pa. L. Rev. 591, (1982); Gunther, supra p. 20, at 976). Justice Brandeis' concurrence in Whitney v. California, 274 U.S. 357, 47 S. Ct. 641 (1927), has been cited as support for this theory. Therein he states that "those who won our independence believed that the final end of the State was to make men free to develop their faculties. . ." (274 U.S. at 375).

Under this theory, when speech is freely chosen by the speaker to persuade others, it defines and expresses the "self" and enables the individual to develop his powers and abilities and to make decisions regarding his destiny. (Redish, The Value of Free Speech, 130 U. Pa. L. Rev. 591 (1982)).

The Court concludes that the use of audio subliminal communications does not advance any of these theories cited to justify free speech. Each of these theories entails some measure of discussion, the free flow of ideas, and open and robust debate among the participants. Under the marketplace theory, the free exchange of ideas ultimately permits truth to prevail; under the self-government theory, discussion and debate over political issues furthers our democratic system of government; and under the self-fulfillment orself-realization theory, an individual's ability to freely express himself to others enhances his personal autonomy and development.

Audio subliminal communications are the antithesis of these theories. They do not convey ideas or information to be processed by the listener so that he or she can make an individual determination about its value. They do not enable an individual to further his personal autonomy. Instead, they are intended to influence and manipulate the behavior of the listener without his knowledge.

Since subliminal communication does not contribute to dialogue, truth, the free market of ideas, democracy or personal autonomy, it is not really "speech." Even in its most basic form, the use of speech presumes that views will be exchanged or that information will be conveyed and understood. However, subliminal messages are not intended to convey information to be consciously understood, they are intended to surreptitiously influence the thought processes of an individual, and ultimately, his behavior.

Audio subliminal communications infringe upon the freedom of thought and mind which the First Amendment seeks to protect. (Cf. Wooley v. Maynard, 430 U.S. 705, 97 S. Ct. 1428 (1977)).

Because subliminal messages are inconsistent with any of the theories offered to justify freedom of speech, the Court concludes that they are not entitled to First Amendment protection.

B. The Individual's First Amendment Right to Be Free From Unwanted Speech.

In Public Utils. Comm'n v. Pollack, 343 U.S. 451, 72 S. Ct. 813 (1952), the argument was made that the First Amendment guarantees an individual the freedom to listen only to such points of view as he wishes to hear. However, because there was no substantial evidence that radio programs had been used for objectional propaganda, the Supreme Court declined to consider that argument.

Although the Supreme Court in Pollack did not decide whether an individual has a First Amendment right to listen only to points of view which he wishes to hear, the holdings of other Supreme Court cases support the conclusion that such a constitutional right does exist under appropriate circumstances.

In defining the broad spectrum of free speech rights guaranteed by the First Amendment, the Supreme Court has established that an individual has the right to speak, the right to remain silent, and the right to receive information.

The obvious right guaranteed by the express language of the First Amendment is an individual's right to free speech. (Cf. Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479, 482, 85 S. Ct. 1678, 1680 (1965)).

Concomitant with the right to speak is the right not to speak. In Board of Educ. v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 63 S. Ct. 1178 (1943), a local school board adopted regulations requiring school children to recite the Pledge of Allegiance. A child's failure to participate was punishable as insubordination. Members of the Jehovah's Witnesses brought suit to enjoin enforcement of the regulations. The district court granted the injunction and the school board appealed.

The Supreme Court affirmed the district court holding that it was unconstitutional for the school board to compel children to recite the Pledge Of Allegiance. The majority reasoned that it would be inconsistent if the First Amendment protected an individual's right to speak his own mind, but did not protect him from others who would compel him to speak what was not in his mind. (63 S. Ct. at 1183).

The Supreme Court further reasoned that it was more important to protect individual freedom of mind than to sanction compelled uniformity. (63 S. Ct. at 1135).

Finally, the Court concluded that compelling children to recite the Pledge of Allegiance invaded "the sphere of intellect and spirit" protected by the First Amendment. (63 S. Ct. at 1187).

The holding in Barnette was reaffirmed in Wooley v. Maynard, 430 U.S. 705, 97 S. Ct. 1428 (1977). In Wooley, a New Hampshire statute required noncommercial vehicles to bear license plates embossed with the state motto, "Live Free or Die." Any person who knowingly obscured the numbers or letters on a license plate was guilty of a misdemeanor.

Members of the Jehovah's Witnesses brought suit in federal court seeking both declaratory and injunctive relief from enforcement of the statute. They claimed that the state motto conflicted with their religious beliefs. A three-judge district court granted the requested injunction and the state appealed.

On appeal, the Supreme Court held that it was a violation of the First Amendment for the state to require an individual to display an ideological message on his private property.

In reaching its holding, the Court reasoned that the right of freedom of thought protected by the First Amendment included both the right to speak and the right to refrain from speaking. (97 S Ct. at 1405). As the Court stated:

"A system which secures the right to proselytize religious, political and ideological causes must also guarantee the concomitant right to decline to foster such concepts. The right to speak and the right to refrain from speaking are complementary components of the broader concept of `individual freedom of mind.'" (97 S. Ct. at 1435).

Consistent with its holdings that an individual has First Amendment rights to speak and to remain silent, the Supreme Court has also held that an individual has a First Amendment right to receive information.

This right first appears to have been recognized by the Supreme Court in Martin v. City of Struthers, 319 U.S. 141, 63 S. Ct. 862 (1943). In Martin, a city ordinance prohibited individuals from distributing handbills, circulars, or advertisements by summoning a resident to the door. In holding the ordinance unconstitutional, the Supreme Court stated that the First Amendment protects not only the right to distribute literature, but also the right to receive it. 63 S. Ct. at 863.

The First Amentment right to receive information has been reaffirmed several times. (See Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479, 482, 85 S. Ct. 1678, 1680 (1965); Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557, 564, 89 S. Ct. 1243, 1247 (1969); Kleindienst v. Mandel, 408 U.S. 753, 762, 92 S. Ct. 2576, 2581 (1972)).

In another case, a statute providing that any pharmacist who advertised or promoted the prices or prescription drugs was guilty of unprofessional conduct was challenged. One of the issues to be resolved by the Supreme Court was whether the plaintiffs, prescription drug consumers, had standing to bring suit as the recipients of the intended advertising. The Court held that they did have standing because the First Amendment protected not only the right to distribute information and ideas but also the right to receive information. The Court stated:

"Freedom of speech presupposes a willing speaker. But where a speaker exists, as in the case here, the protection afforded is to the communication, to its source and to its recipient both. . . This Court has referred to a First Amendment right to `receive information and ideas' and that freedom of speech `necessarily protects the right to receive'. . . If there is a right to advertise, there is a reciprocal right to receive the advertising and it may be asserted by these appellees." (96 S. Ct. at 1823).

Although the Supreme Court has never had occasion to articulate whether an individual has a First Amendment right to be free from unwanted speech, the rationale from the preceding cases which recognize the First Amendment rights to speak, to remain silent, and to receive information as well as dieta from several relevant cases support the conclusion that an individual does have the reciprocal right to be free from unwanted speech.

In Kovacs v. Cooper, 336 U.S. 77, 69 S. Ct. 448 (1949), the Supreme Court upheld the validity of a municipal ordinance which prohibited the use of sound trucks despite arguments that it abridged an individual's right of free speech. In reaching its holding, the Supreme Court reasoned that "the right of free speech is guaranteed every citizen that he may reach the minds of willing listeners." (69 S. Ct. at 454). (Emphasis added).

The concurring opinion of Justice Douglas in Lehman v. City of Shaker Heights, 418 U.S. 298, 94 S. Ct. 2714 (1974), is supportive of the language in Kovacs. In Lehman, a candidate for public office attempted to place political advertisements supporting his candidacy on the city transit system. The city refused and the candidate brought suit claiming his First Amendment rights were being violated. The Supreme Court held that due to, inter alia, the captive nature of the streetcar audience, a city bus is not a First Amendment forum.

In his concurring opinion, Justice Douglas focused on the rights of the passengers by stating that the constitutional rights of the speaker are subordinate to the constitutional rights of the commuters when the circumstances are such that they are incapable of declining to receive the message. (94 S. Ct. at 2719).

Kovacs and Lehman imply that individuals have a First Amendment right to be free from unwanted speech. The Supreme Court has stated that the right to speak and the right to refrain from speaking are complementary components of the First Amendment rights of freedom of thought and mind. (See Barnette and Wooley, supra).

Speech is only the outward expression of what a person thinks in his mind. Just as an individual has the freedom to express his thoughts in words about political, social and religious issues, he also has the reciprocal freedom to remain silent on these issues. He may not be forced against his will to speak out about them.

Correspondingly, if an individual has the right to receive information and ideas expressed by others with whom he may philosophically, socially, religiously, or politically agree or disagree, he must also have the reciprocal right to refuse to receive such information and ideas.

If an individual cannot be made to recite a pledge which conflicts with his religious beliefs because the First Amendment protects his freedom of thought, doesn't that same freedom of thought give him the choice to be free from obtrusive speech which may conflict with his religious beliefs?

Subliminal speech is intended to influence the listener's behavior by having the message surface in the listener's conscious mind as his own thoughts and beliefs.

When an individual is exposed to subliminal messages without his knowledge and consent, he is deprived of his constitutional right to choose the speech to which he would either listen or decline to listen and his First Amendment right of freedom of thought is violated.

The Court concludes that the First Amendment right of an individual to be free from intrusive speech are paramount under circumstances involving subliminal messages where the individual has no knowledge that he is being bombarded by these messages, and therefore, has no means of making a conscious decision to either hear them or avoid them.

C. May Hidden Messages Be Forced Upon An Unknowing And Unconsenting Audience?

An individual's right of privacy was first articulated by Justice Douglas in Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479, 85 S. Ct. 1678 (1965). According to Griswold, the right of privacy is found in the penumbras emanating from the Bill of Rights. (85 S. Ct. at 1681).

The holding in Griswold was at least partially foreshadowed by Justice Frankfurter's concurrence in Kovacs and Justice Douglas' dissent in Pollack.

In upholding a municipality's ban of sound trucks which emitted loud and raucous noise, Justice Frankfurter relied heavily on the rights of individual's to be free from intrusive speech. He recognized that unless the "narrowing opportunities for serenity and reflection" are safeguarded, "freedom of thought becomes a mocking phrase, and without freedom of thought there can be no free society." (69 S. Ct. at 459).

In Pollak, the Supreme Court held that the broadcasting of music over loudspeakers in city buses was constitutionally permissible. Justice Douglas dissented relying upon the passengers' right of privacy. He believed that the right to be let alone was the beginning of all freedom. He stated that the right to be let alone included the right to think as one chooses and to believe as one wishes. (72 S. Ct. at 823).

While Justice Douglas recognized that an individual loses some measure of privacy when he goes upon the streets or enters public places, he did not believe that an individual riding in a public bus out of necessity could be forced to listen to speech which he did not want to hear.

He was concerned that when people are forced to listen to another's ideas, the propagandist is given a powerful weapon. He concluded, stating that "the right of privacy today violated, is a powerful deterrent to any one who would control men's minds." (72 S. Ct. at 824).

On occasion, an individual's right of privacy conflicts with another individual's right of free speech. Which right prevails involves a balancing test which often depends upon the circumstances under which the conflict occurs. (See FCC v. Pacifica Found., 433 U.S. 726, 748 n. 27, 93 S. Ct.3026, 3040 n. 9 (1978); Rowan v. Post Office Dep't, 397 U.S. 728, 736-37, 90 S. Ct. 1484, 1490 (1970); Erzonznik v. Jacksonville, 422 U.S. 205, 208-09, 95 S. Ct. 2268, 2272 (1975)).

As the following cases illustrate, an individual's right of privacy will prevail over another's right of free speech if the unwilling listener's degree of captivity makes it impractical for him to avoid the unwanted speech.

In Rowan v. Post Office Dep't, 397 S.S. 228, 90 S. Ct. 1484 (1970), it was necessary for the Supreme Court to determine whether an individual's right of privacy in his home outweighed an individual's free speech rights.

In Rowan, a federal statute allowed an addressee receiving material which he considered erotically arousing or sexually provocative to notify the post office to remove his name from the sender's mailing list. After the post office received the request, it would issue an order directing the sender to refrain from further mailings to the named addressee.

The statute was challenged by publishers, distributors, owner, and operators of mail order houses, and mailing list brokers, and owners and operators of mail service organizations as an unconstitutional infringement upon their First Amendment right to communicate.

The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the statute stating:

"Weighing the highly important right to communicate . . . against the very basic right to be free from sights, sounds, and tangible matters we do not want, it seems to us that a mailer's right to communicate must stop at the mailbox of an unreceptive addressee." (90 S. Ct. at 1490).

In reaching its decision, the Court reasoned that nothing in the Constitution compels an individual to listen to or view any unwanted communication, regardless of its merit. 909 s. Ct. at 1490. The Supreme court further stated that if its decision operated to impede the flow of valid ideas, the answer was that no one has a right to force even "good" ideas on an unwilling recipient. (90 S. Ct. at 1491).

In Lehman v. City of Shaker Heights, 418 U.S. 298, 94 S. Ct. 2714 (1974), a local politician attempted to place political advertisements in the car card space on city buses. His application was denied because the management agreement with the city did not permit political advertising. The politician sought judicial relief claiming that his First Amendment rights had been violated.

On review, the Supreme Court held that due to, inter alia, the inability of the passengers to effectively avoid the car cards, the politician had no First Amendment right to require his political advertising to be placed in the city buses.

Justice Douglas' concurrence emphasized the passengers' right of privacy when he stated:

"In asking us to force the system to accept his message as a vindication of his constitutional rights, the petitioner overlooks the constitutional rights of the commuters. While petitioner clearly has a right to express his views to those who wish to listen, he has no right to force his message upon an audience incapable of declining to receive it. In my view the right of the commuters to be free from forced intrusions on their privacy precludes the city from transforming its vehicles of public transportation into forums for the dissemination of ideas upon this captive audience." (94 S. Ct. at 2719).

In FCC v. Pacifica Found., 438 U.S. 726, 98 S. Ct. 3026 (1978), the Supreme Court upheld the authority of the FCC to regulate the hours during which radio stations could broadcast indecent language despite claims that such regulation violated the First Amendment's guarantee of free speech.

The Court stated that of all forms of communication, broadcasting received the most limited First Amendment protection because of its "uniquely pervasive presence" in the lives of Americans. (98 S. Ct. at 3040). According to the Court, patently offensive, indecent material presented over the airwaves could be restricted since an individual's right to be left alone at home plainly outweighed the First Amendment rights of an intruder. Id. The Court rejected the argument that the offended listener could simply turn off the radio stating that it was like saying that the remedy for an assault is to run away after the first blow. Id.

One of the more recent cases to consider the competing privacy rights of an individual and the First Amendment rights of a speaker is Frisby v. Schultz (108 S. Ct. 2495 (1988)).

In Frisby, a city ordinance was enacted which prohibited residential picketing. The stated purpose of the ordinance was to protect, inter alia, the privacy of the individual's home.

Despite arguments to the contrary, the Supreme Court affirmed that a public street is a traditional public forum regardless of whether or not the street runs through a residential neighborhood.

The test applied by the Court in determining whether or not the ordinance was constitutional was whether it was narrowly tailored to serve a significant government interest and whether it left open ample alternative channels of communication. (108 S. Ct. at 2501).

The Court concluded that protecting the privacy of the home was a significant government interest. The area of privacy focused on by the Court was protection of the unwilling listener. In this regard, the Court stated:

"Thus, we have repeatedly held that individuals are not required to welcome unwanted speech into their homes and that the government may protect this freedom (citations omitted). . . There simply is no right to force speech into the home of an unwilling listener." (108 S. Ct. at 2502).

The Court held that the ordinance did not violate the First Amendment. In reaching this holding, the Court reasoned that individuals were captive in their homes and "the First Amendment permits the government to prohibit offensive speech as intrusive when the `captive' audience cannot avoid the objectionable speech." (108 S. Ct. at 2503).

Contrasted with the Court`s decisions in the cases discussed above are Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15, 91 S. Ct. 1780 (1971), and Erznoznik v. Jacksonville, 422 U.S. 205, 95 S. Ct. 2268 (1975).

In Cohen, the defendant wore a jacket in the Los Angeles County Courthouse with the words "F the Draft" printed on the back. He was arrested and convicted of "maliciously and willfully disturbing the peace or quiet of any neighborhood or person . . . by offensive conduct." (403 U.S. at 16).

The Supreme Court overturned his conviction stating that his message was protected by the First Amendment despite the argument being made that his mode of expression was thrust upon unwilling or unsuspecting viewers, and therefore, was unprotected speech. The Court rejected this argument stating that the unwilling or unsuspecting viewers could easily avert their eyes.

In Erznoznik, the manager of a drive-in theater challenged the constitutionality of a city ordinance which prohibited drive-in theaters, visible from any public street or public place, from showing movies which contained certain prescribed nudity. In support of the ordinance, the city argued that any movie containing nudity which was visible from a public place could be lawfully suppressed as a nuisance in order to protect citizens from unwilling exposure to material that could be offensive.

The Supreme Court struck down the ordinance as being an unconstitutional impairment of First Amendment rights. In reaching its holding, the Court stated that there are occasions when the degree of captivity makes it impossible for the unwilling viewer or auditor to avoid exposure, and therefore, the captive individual's right of privacy prevails. (95 S. Ct. at 2272-73). However, under the circumstances in Erznoznik, the Court did not believe that a drive-in theater was so obtrusive that it was impossible for an unwilling individual to avoid being exposed to the offensive material. (95 S. Ct. at 2274).

The Court concludes that the foregoing cases firmly establish that the privacy rights of an unwilling listener will prevail over the free speech rights of a speaker if the listener is subjected to a speaker's message under circumstances which make it impossible or impractical for the listener to avoid being exposed to the unwanted message. Conversely, if the listener or viewer can avoid exposure after the initial impact, then the First Amendment rights of the speaker should prevail.

Applying this standard to the present case, the Court concludes that the very nature of subliminal messages make it impossible for the unknowing listener to avoid exposure.

Privacy, if it is to mean anything, must permit a recipient of communication to control what he sees or hears. He must have the freedom to choose what he sees or hears. He must have the freedom to choose what he will listen to, read, or view. His reception of communication must be voluntary. No individual should be as a captive audience.

The defendants contended during oral arguments that an employer has a First Amendment right to imbed subliminal messages into the Music system of its factory which direct its employees to vote for a particular political candidate in an attempt to influence their vote. They contend that this is the freedom contemplated by the First Amendment.

We do not agree. The Court believes that this approach is the antithesis of freedom. The privacy rights and freedom of the employees to control what they see or hear, and think as they choose, may well be denied when they are continuously exposed to such a subliminal message.

Perhaps no one is more of a captive audience than one who is exposed to subliminal messages. Because individuals subjected to subliminal messages are an unknowing audience, they have even less control than the unwilling audience. The listeners or viewers don't know if they are willing to receive the subliminal message because they are unaware that it existed. In the captive audience cases described above, individuals could at least attempt to shut out the unwanted speech; however, when subliminal messages are employed, the unaware listener does not even have that option.

If the right of privacy is to respect the mental processes of an individual, as it does, it must have the ability to foreclose others from secretly intruding into the subconscious of an unwitting individual in an attempt to manipulate his thought processes and ultimately his behavior.

In their closing arguments at the oral hearing, the defendants claimed that there was no difference between manipulating an individual by using subliminal techniques or manipulating an individual by traditional speech. The Court does not agree. Traditional speech is consciously heard by the listener whereas subliminal speech is not intended to be nor is it consciously heard by the unwitting listener. Traditional speech may be consciously evaluated by the listener and either accepted or rejected. Subliminal speech is incapable of being consciously evaluated and is intended to influence the listener's behavior without giving him the opportunity for conscious reflection and consideration before acting.

The freedom to exercise one's thoughts is essential to the exercise of other constitutional rights. If an individual is not protected in his thoughts and behavior, the right of privacy becomes meaningless. The use of subliminal messages deprive an individual of these aspects of privacy. Subliminal messages may deny an individual his right to make free choices. Consequently, the Court concludes that when an individual is subjected to subliminal messages without his knowledge and consent, his privacy rights outweigh any free speech rights of the person or entity publishing the subliminal message.

Subliminal Literature: Bibliography And Review.

Aarons, L. (1976). Sleep-assisted instruction. Illinois Department of Mental Health and Developmental Disabilities. Chicago. Psychological Bulletin, 83 (1), pp 1-40.

Louis Aarons states that the differences in results obtained from studies on sleep learning, can be explained by differences in procedures and the lack of an established criterion for sleep.

From his research, Aarons deduced that the conditions necessary for effective sleep-learning are; low voltage EEG sleep patterns, positive motivation, meaningful learning materials, coordination with wake-learning activities and extended training.

Adam G. (1978). Visceroception, awareness and behavior. In G.E. Schwartz and D. Shapiro (Eds.) Consciousness and Self-regulation, Vol. 2, pp 199-213. Chichester, Wiley.

From his research, Adam found that:

1. Without any awareness of an intestinal stimulus (i.e. the inflating of a balloon lodged in the duodenum), the latter evoked an EEG arousal response.

2. The inflation of a similar intestinal balloon, which had been located 15 cm away from the first, resulted in renewed blocking of the EEG. This occurred inspite of the eventual habituation to the first stimulus.

Findings 1 and 2 demonstrate cortical discrimination of the spatial separation between two subliminal visceral stimuli.

3. When subliminal electric shocks were delivered to the cervix uteri of human subjects, there was, once again, electrographic evidence of cortical discrimination without awareness.

With finding 3 however, it was possible to bring eventual awareness of the cervical stimuli by using verbally mediated biofeedback.

Adams, J.K. (1957). Laboratory studies of behavior with awareness. Psychological Bulletin, 54, pp 383-405.

In this article Adams summarizes the findings of 76 earlier studies of behavior without awareness.

From his research Adam concludes that subjects have been able to discriminate among many types of auditory and visual stimuli presented below the threshold of awareness to a degree greater than chance.

Adams, T.L. (1986). Subliminal self improvement. East Detroit: Adams Life Enhancement Programs.

Terry Adams covers the evolution of subconscious learning, hypnosis, and subliminal communication in advertising and self-improvement.

Adams, V. (1982, May). Mommy and I are one. Psychology Today, 16 (5), pp 24-36.

Virginia Adams examines the research which has been carried out on subliminal perception.

The work of Lloyd Silverman is emphasized.

Silverman has conducted or directed more than 50 studies demonstrating that the subliminal presentation of emotionally charged messages can trigger unconscious thoughts and feelings and thus alter behavior.

It is Silverman who used a tachistoscope (apparatus for brief exposure of visual stimuli) to subliminally project words such as, "Mommy and I are one."

It was from his research that Silverman derived the theory of psychodynamic activation. This theory states that wish related subliminal stimuli have the power to activate psychodynamic processes - processes in which unconscious wishes, fantasies, anxieties and defensive operations - effect overt behavior.

Adamson, R., Henke, P. & O'Donovan, D. (1969). Avoidance conditioning following preadaptation to weak shock. Psychonomic Science, 14 (3), pp 119-121.

Robert Adamson, Peter Henke and Denis O'Donovan preadapted four groups of rats to no-shock, 0.004, 0.008 and 0.02 ma.

The rats were then conditioned in a jump box to 0.03 ma. shock preceded by a bell.

The 0.004 and 0.008 groups required significantly fewer trials.

The results were related to those of studies using subliminal anchor stimuli with human subjects.

Aiba, T.S. (1963). Can the absolute threshold be conditioned? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 65, pp 233-9.

In this study, Aiba states that the absolute threshold can be altered by conditioning.

Allen, G.J. & Condon, T.J. (1982). Whither subliminal psychodynamic activation? A reply to Silverman. University of Connecticut, Storrs. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91 (2), pp 131-133. ISSN: 0021-843X

George Allen and Thomas Condon reply to comments by L.H. Silverman on their earlier criticisms of subliminal symbiotic stimulation as a clinical adjunct to systematic desensitization.

The authors state that none of the "contradictory" evidence deals with desensitization or any other treatment for phobic anxiety.

The authors believe that the alternative explanations Silverman derives from the new data are based on an arbitrary and simplistic method of data aggregation that lacks consistency across investigations.

As a result, the authors state that the resulting selective bias severely reduces the explanatory power of these alternative possibilities. As such the authors still believe that stimulation of unconscious merging fantasies is superfluous in desensitization.

Allison, J. (1963). Cognitive structure and receptivity to low intensity stimulation. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, pp 132-8.

Research by Allison has shown that a relaxed state favors subliminal determination. However, this is only true of right hemisphericity subjects.

For a subliminal stimulus to be effective, there must be no competing cognitive structure"

There is clear support for the hypothesis that, a cognitive structure which allows for less logical, less differentiated elements, can better permit the incorporation of new stimuli.

Subliminal effects are maximized by having the subject in a state of relaxed passivity."

Allport, D.A. (1980). Patterns and actions and attention and performance. In G.L. Claxton (Ed.) New Directions in Cognitive Psychology. Chapters 2 and 4. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Allport states that there are certain rules which govern the interplay between memory, motivation and action.

These rules are either acquired or innate.

Anderson, A., Fries, I. & Smith, G.J.W. (1970). Change in after image and spiral after-effect serials due to anxiety caused by subliminal threat. Scandinavian Journal Of Psychology, 11 (1), pp 7-16.

Alf Anderson, Ingrid Fries and Gudmund Smith performed an experiment which involved the serial projection of negative afterimages, combined with the aftereffects of a rotating spiral.

In the middle of the sequence, the experimental subjects were subjected to subliminal threats by means of a metacontrast technique.

The results were as predicted and differed markedly from the results in the control groups.

Anderson, A., Nilson, A., Ruuth, E. & Smith, G.J.W. (1970). Change in after-image and after-effect serials due to anxiety caused by subliminal threat. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, pp 7-16.

Anderson, A., Nilson, A., Ruuth, E., & Smith, G.J.W. (1972) Visual after effects and the individual as an adaptive system. Lundi: Gleerup.

Andersson, Nilson, Ruuth and Smith demonstrated that a threatening stimulus masked by metacontrast may affect the color and duration of post-stimulus phenomena, such as after-images and the spiral after-effect.

In these studies, the influence of unconsciously registered meaning on a meaningless perceptual experience suggests that the subliminal stimulus was acting upon perceptual processes rather than response behavior.

Antell, M. (1969). The effect of subliminal activation of sexual and aggressive drive derivatives on literary creativity. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 30, p. 3859B.

Antell reported positive results in an investigation which replicates Silverman's dart experiment.

Antell, M.J. (1970). The effect of priming and the subliminal presentation of sexual and aggressive stimuli on tests of creativity. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 30 (8-B), pp 3859-3860.

Maxine Antell tested the effects of the subliminal activation of sexual and aggressive drives on creativity.

Antell, M.J., & Goldberger, L. (1978). The effects of subliminally presented sexual and aggressive stimuli on literary creativity. Lund University. Psychological Research Bulletin, 18 (7), p. 20. ISSN: 0348-3673.

Maxine Antell and Leo Goldberger examined the effects of sexual and aggressive stimuli on creativity.

Two groups of subjects (creative and noncreative) received three conditions; sexual, aggressive and neutral stimulation.

On the Remote Associates Test, creative and noncreative groups did not differ on a baseline measurement.

Combining the groups gave results which showed that drive activation did facilitate creativity, and that sexual activation was superior to aggressive activation for this purpose.

In a task composing metaphors, drive activation was disruptive to performance.

It was found that aggressive activation was more disruptive than sexual stimulation, and that the noncreative group was more susceptible to such disruption than the creative group.

Arey, L.B. (1960). The indirect representation of sexual stimuli by schizophrenic and normal subject. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 61 (3), pp 424-41.

In this study, it was shown that information presented below the awareness threshold tended to evoke semantically related responses.

The study required normal and schizophrenic males to guess the nature of tachistoscopically exposed sexual and neutral pictures.

While both groups gave symbolic responses to the subliminal stimuli, the normal males reflected positive attitudes and schizophrenics reflected negative attitudes toward sex.

This study showed that subliminal effects have unique characteristics different from effects of supraliminal stimuli.

Ariam, S. (1980). The effects of subliminal symbiotic stimuli in Hebrew on academic performances of Israeli high school students. (Doctoral dissertation, New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (11-A), p. 5782.

Sima Ariam found that the use of subliminal symbiotic stimuli improved the academic performance of Israeli high school students.

Ariam, S & Siller, J. (1982). Effects of subliminal oneness stimuli in Hebrew on academic performance of Israeli high school students: further evidence on the adaptation-enhancing effects of symbiotic fantasies in another culture using another language. New York University. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91 (5), pp 343-349. ISSN: 0021-843X.

Sima Ariam and Jerome Siller observed the effects of subliminal oneness stimuli in Hebrew on the academic performance of Israeli high school students.

This study provides evidence about the therapeutic effects of symbiotic fantasies in another culture using another language.

The subjects were 72 Israeli 10th graders (matched for sex, math class and previous math grades) randomly assigned to 4 treatment groups.

It was decided before the study to eliminate from the data analysis any students who were not from a Hebrew-speaking home, any students who could not be matched with other students on the three variables, and any student who had sporadic attendance during the six-week period of the study due to illness, etc.

Each group was tachistoscopically presented with subliminal exposures to one of four Hebrew translations of printed stimuli; "Mommy and I are one" (2 versions), "My teacher and I are one" and a neutral stimulus, "People are walking in the street."

Each subject received subliminal stimulation four times a week over a six-week period.

Achievement tests administered six weeks apart showed that the groups exposed to either version of "Mommy and I are one" exhibited significantly higher scores than either of the other groups.

There was no difference in the achievement tests administered to the groups exposed to the subliminal stimuli "My teacher and I are one and "People walking in the street".

Neither version of mommy and I are one was superior to the other.

The results support the hypothesis that the adaptation-enhancing effects of the symbolic fantasy represents a general human phenomenon and are consistent with findings of other studies.

Arzumanov Iul & Arzumanov Il (1974). Elaboration of temporary connections in man using unrecognized visual stimuli. Zh Vyssh Nerv Deiat., 24 (5), pp 917-923. Language: RUSSIAN.

Athens, A. (1973, December). Beware, here comes the mind manipulators. Family Health, pp 38-42.

Art Athens discusses the use of subliminal technology for reducing retail theft.

Augenbraun, H.R. (1983). The effect of subliminal activation of unconscious fantasies in the treatment of juvenile-onset and adult-onset obesity. Memphis State University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43 (12-B), p. 4134. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Hedy Augenbraun examined the effect of subliminal activation of unconscious fantasies in the treatment of weight reduction for females with juvenile- and adult- onset obesity.

Aurell, C.G. (1979, October). Perception: A model comprising two modes of consciousness. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 49 (2), pp 431-444.

Averback, E. & Coriell, A.S. (1961). Short term memory in vision. Bell System Technical Journal, 40, pp 309-28.

In this study, it was found subjects may continue to obtain information from a subliminal stimulus for a brief period after the tachistoscopic exposure has ended.

Babighian, G. (1969). Behavior and clinical importance of various subliminal tests in Meniere's disease. Minerva Otorinolaringol, 19 (4), pp 215-217. ISSN: 0026-4938, Language: ITALIAN.

Bagby, P.K. (1985). The effect of symbiotic and Oedipal subliminal stimuli on field independence and competitive tasks. University of Nevada, Reno. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (12-B, pt 1), p. 3927. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Patricia Bagby examined the effect of symbiotic and Oedipal subliminal stimuli on field independence and competitive tasks in college students.

Baker, L.E. (1937a). The influence of subliminal stimuli upon verbal behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20.

Lynn Baker sets out the influence of priming on verbal behavior.

Baker, L.E. (1937b). The pupillary response conditioned to subliminal auditory stimuli. Doctoral Dissertation, Vol W1937, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Lynn Baker examined the conditioning of the pupillary response by subliminal auditory stimuli.

Balay J. & Shevrin, H. (1988). The psychodynamic activation method, a critical review. American Psychologist, 43 (3), pp 161-174.

Jennifer Balay and Howard Shevrin review the psychodynamic activation method.

Researchers claim that the psychodynamic activation theory has been successfully tested experimentally with the use of specially constructed subliminal stimuli.

In this review, Balay and Shevrin claim that Silverman's work has internally inconsistent results with few attempts at exact replication.

The authors state that Silverman has expanded the applications of the method without carefully establishing the conditions under which results could be reliably obtained.

Balay and Shevrin discuss the weaknesses in the methodology used for the research programs.

There are also theoretical concerns about; (a) the assumption that subliminal generic messages are consistent with the psychoanalytic theory regarding the nature of unconscious conflict, and (b) the assumption that subliminal stimuli can activate unconscious conflict.

Balay, J.S. (1987). The role of aggression in bipolar affective disorder: a subliminal approach. Dissertation Abstracts International, 48 (4-B), p. 1145.

Balota, D.A. (1982). Automatic and attentional activation in semantic and episodic memory: Implications for the utility of conscious awareness. University of South Carolina. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42 (12-B, Pt 1), p. 4952. ISSN: 0419-4209.

In this study, David Balota investigated the influence of a pattern-masked subliminal stimulus on long-term memory and response latency on lexical decisions.

Using the subliminal stimulus it was possible to produce activation in semantic memory. However it was not possible to direct conscious attention in long-term memory.

Baldwin, R.B. (1974). Kinetic art - use of subliminal stimulation of visual perception. Leonardo, 7 (1), pp 1-5.

Bancroft, W.J. (1976). Suggestology and suggestopedia; The theory of the Lozanov method. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 132857).

Jane Bancroft discusses the theory of the Lozanov method.

To be understood properly suggestology and suggestopedia should be considered in relation to yoga, Soviet and western work in suggestion and psychotherapy, the Russian school of physiological psychology and the Soviet concept of the unconscious, Soviet linguistics and pedagogy.

Suggestology investigates the subsensory signals or subliminal stimuli which come from the physical or social environment and which are absorbed into the unconscious mind before receiving a conscious expression. Suggestion, especially spoken suggestion, activates the reserve capacities of the mind or the memory.

Suggestopedia increases memorization capacities. Hypermnesia is facilitated by relaxation techniques (derived from yoga and autogenic therapy) which increase the subject's suggestibility to spoken suggestions or unconscious stimuli.

As lack of scientific data in "Suggestopedia" may lead to a negative reaction to the Lozanov thesis, Bancroft suggests translating the underlying original ideas and reconstructing the statistical evidence in accordance with the more rigorous and less ideologically oriented methods used in western science.

Banretti-Fuchs, K.M. (1967). Perception without awareness. Acta Psychologie, 26 (2), pp 148-160.

This paper examines visual perception with subliminal stimulation.

Barber, P.J. (1977). Experimenter bias against subliminal perception? A rejoinder. University of London, Birkbeck College. British Journal of Psychology, 68 (3), pp 281-82.

Paul Barber replies to criticisms regarding his replication of three subliminal perception experiments.

The argument that the replications were less sensitive to subliminal perception effects than the original experiment is discussed with regards to experimenter bias and instrument sensitivity.

Barber P.J. (1982). Perceptual defence: Attempted replication using the dark adaptation paradigm. A rejoinder. University of London, Birkbeck College, England. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 36 (3) pp 345-348. ISSN: 0008-4255.

Paul Barber discusses criticisms by A.G. Worthington (1964) regarding the replications by the present author and C. de la Mahotiere using the dark-adaptation paradigm for perceptual defense.

Barber's reasons for choosing this paradigm to replicate rather than a later version is explained, as are the reasons for the failure to replicate.

Barber, P.J. & Rushton, J.P. (1975). Experimenter bias and subliminal perception. University of London, Birkbeck College, England. British Journal of Psychology, 66 (3), pp 357-372.

Paul Barber and J. Philippe Rushton addressed the question that subliminal perception may be due, in part, to experimenter bias effects.

Studies by G.J. Smith et al (1959) and D.P. Spence & B. Holland (1962) were therefore replicated with the experimenters tested under blind and not-blind conditions.

Although there were diffuse Experimenter effects, there was not strong evidence to support the experimenter bias hypothesis.

Barchas, P.R. & Perlaki, K.M. (1986). Processing of preconsciously acquired information measured by hemispheric asymmetry and selection accuracy. Behavioral Neuroscience, 100 (3), pp 343-349. ISSN: 0735-7044.

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of instruction types on hemispheric activation and accurate selection of spatial stimuli that had previously been presented at a subliminal level.

The results supported the hypothesis that analytical subjects would be more likely to engage the parietal region of their left hemisphere and holistic subjects would favor relative activation of the right parietal region.

The findings are discussed in terms of a memory model of information processing.

Barenklau, K.E. (1981). Using subliminal in technical training. Training, 18 (12), pp 50-51. ISSN: 0095-5892.

It has been seen through subliminal advertising that people can be taught to respond positively to very brief images. Keith Barenklau explains how this technique may be used effectively in some kinds of technical training.

The human brain processes information in very short periods of time - perhaps 1/1000th of a second. Experience has shown that a high level of detail can be built up in memory, along with highly specific learning responses to images.

A training technique based on minimal perception was first developed at Ohio State University during World War 2. At exposures of 1/100th of a second, U.S. Navy gunners were trained to identify more than 2,000 silhouettes at one sitting without a mistake.

The major equipment involved in the training technique based on minimal perception is the tachistoscope, a device which regulates the duration of the flashed image. A tachistoscope mounted on a slide projector is all that is needed for this kind of instruction.

Short training sessions, of not more than 20 minutes, have proven to be the best. The learning requires intense concentration. The tachistoscope has been successfully used in teaching student drivers to recognize and respond quickly to potential vehicle collision situations.

Bargh, J.A., Bond, R.N., Lombardi, W.J. & Tota, M.E. (1986). The addictive nature of chronic and temporary sources of construct accessibility. New York University. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 50 (5), pp 869-878. ISSN: 0022-3514.

John Bargh, Ronald Bond, Wendy Lombardi and Mary Tota investigated the joint influence of long- and short-term sources of accessibility on impression formation.

Subjects with or without a long-term, chronically accessible construct for either kindness or shyness were first exposed subliminally to either 0 or 80 trait-related words. Subjects then read a behavioral description that was ambiguously relevant to the primed trait dimension, and they rated the target on several trait scales.

For both the kind and the shy trait conditions, chronic accessibility and subliminal priming reliably and independently increased the extremity of the impression ratings.

Results support a model in which long- and short-term sources of accessibility combine additively to increase the likelihood of the construct's use.

The subliminal priming effect appeared to be a general and pervasive phenomenon, insofar as it occurred for both an evaluatively positive and an evaluatively neutral trait dimension, and for subjects without, as well as with, a chronically accessible construct for the primes.

Implications for the nature of construct accessibility and the generality of automatic influences on social perception are discussed.

Barkoczi, I., Sera, L. & Komlosi, A. (1983). Relationships between functional asymmetry of the hemispheres, subliminal perception and some defence mechanisms in various experimental settings. Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary. Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient, 26 (1), pp 1-20 ISSN: 0033- 2852.

I. Barkoczi, L. Sera and A. Komlosi studied the relationship between functional asymmetry of the hemispheres, subliminal perception and some defense mechanisms in various experimental settings.

The subjects participated in 2 experiments with different lateral eye-movement situation in order to examine the role of the 2 hemispheres in the processing of emotional stimuli. In the interval between their participation in the 2 experiments, the subjects were administered the Repression-Sensitization Scale and the Defense Mechanism Inventory.

The 2 experiments involved recognition of aversively preconditioned stimuli in a divided field and P.H. Bakan's (1971) lateral eye-movement questioning method.

The results indicate that several indices obtained in the experimental situations (i.e., lateral eye movement, verbal reaction time, GSR, EEG) showed the right hemisphere to be superior in the preprocessing of emotionally loaded stimuli. The extent of this superiority, however, depended on degree of hemisphericity.

The findings support the formation of different defense mechanisms on the basis of learning. An interpretation of subception and defense mechanisms is presented.

Barratt, P.E.H. & Beh, H.C. (1964), Subliminal perception of the concept of vigilance. Australian Journal of Psychology, pp 107-119.

Barratt, P.E.H. & Herd, J.H. (1964). Subliminal conditioning of the alpha rhythm. Australian Journal of Psychology, 16, pp 9-19.

Battersby, W.S. & Defabaugh, G.L., (1969). Neural limitations of visual excitibility: after-effects of subliminal stimulation. Vision Research, 9 (7), pp 757-768. ISSN: 0042-6989.

This paper examines the after-effects of subliminal stimulation on visual perception.

Bauer, W.D. (1986). The effects of conditional and unconditional subliminal stimuli on intrinsic motivation. University of Rochester. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (8-B), pp 2794-2795. ISSN: 0419-4209.

This study attempts to rule out the Self Perception accounts of findings in the intrinsic motivation literature. Behavioral and affective indices of intrinsic motivation were demonstrated to be effected outside of awareness. The Subliminal Psychodynamic Activation Method was used to present the experimental intervention outside of awareness.

Four groups of subjects were used, each receiving one of four messages: "Mommy and I are one"; "Mommy and I are one when I'm good"; "Mommy and I are one all the time" and the control "People are walking on the path".

Of particular interest were the negative emotions (ie. fear, shame and anxiety) reported in the "Mommy and I are one" group.

The results are discussed in terms of the implications for developmental origins of styles of self regulation as well as the importance of subject and dosage factors in responses to subliminally presented merging stimuli in the treatment control.

Baumeister, A. & Kistler, D. (1975). Facilitation of retention by white noise. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 20, pp 13-31.

Bayuk, M. & Bayuk, B.S. (1980). Suggestology and suggestopedia: A selective bibliography of western sources. ERID ED 192556 FL011596.

Milla Bayuk and Barry Bayuk compiled a bibliography with more than 200 titles, including addendum with 22 titles lists: 1) sources dealing with psychological and physiological research on the brain and it's function in learning, and 2) works treating subliminal suggestion and perception, and 3) papers on the influence of music on learning and behavior.

Becker, H.C. (1976) Subliminal communication and hypnosis. Presentation to the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, 25th Annual Scientific Meeting. October 24-30. Denver.

Becker, H.C., Chamberlain, S.B., Heisse, J.W. Jr. & Marino, D.R. (1982). Subliminal communication and hypnosis. Paper presented at the Conference of the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis. Denver, October.

In this paper evidence is presented that shows how subliminal communication offers a broad spectrum of approaches for "human resource potentiation."

As subliminal stimuli appear to reach directly to the primitive and unconscious levels of the mind, this suggests a wide range of therapeutic, educational and industrial applications.

Supermarkets in the New Orleans area reported dramatic results using a "little black box" that delivers messages over a store's music below the threshold of normal hearing.

A typical black-box message repeats, "I am honest; I will not steal. If I steal, I'll get caught." According to Becker, the message "activates psychostatic unconscious wishes and desires" in the potential thief and creates a conflict between a conscious drive to steal and the unconscious, innate aversion to theft.

Becker, H.C. & Charbonnet, K.D. (1980). Applications of subliminal video and audio stimuli in therapeutic, educational, industrial and commercial settings. Eighth Annual Northeast Bioengineering Conference, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, March 28, 1980.

Becker, H.C., Charbonnet, K.D., Warren III, E.S., Corrigan. R.E., Schmidt III, L.F., Griffin, Jr., C.E., Penick III, R.M. & Ryder III, F.B. (1980). New subliminal processors for therapy, industry, education. 33rd Annual Conference of Engineering in Medicine and Biology (ACEMB), Washington, D.C., September 30-October 3.

Becker, H.C., Corrigan, R.E., Elder, S.T., Tallant, J.D. & Goldstein, M. (1965, August 22-27). Subliminal communication: Biological engineering considerations. Digest of the 6th International Conference of Medical Electronics and Biological Engineering, pp 452-453. Tokyo.

Becker, H.C. & Elder, S.T. (1966). Can subliminal perception be useful to the psychiatrist? Excerpta Medica (International Congress, Series No. 117). Abstract of paper presented to the IV World Congress of Psychiatry, Madrid, Spain, September 5-11.

Becker, H.C. & Glanzer, H.H. (1978). Subliminal communication: Advances in audiovisual engineering applications for behavior therapy and education. Proceedings of the 1978 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Region 3 Conference. Atlanta, April 10-12.

Becker, H.C., Jewell, J.F. & Alito, P. (1977, March 13017). Video and audio signal monitors/processors for subliminal communication in weight control. Proceedings of the 12th Annual Meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI), San Francisco.

Becker, H.C. & McDonagh. E.W. (1978). Subliminal communication (subliminal psychodynamic activation) in rehabilitative and preventive medicine. Proceedings of the 1978 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Region 3 Conference. Atlanta, April 10-12.

Beisgen, R.T., Jr. & Gibby, R.G., Jr. (1969). Autonomic and verbal discrimination of a subliminally learned task. Virginia Commonwealth University. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 29 (2), pp 503-507. ISSN: 0031-5125.

Robert Beisgen, Jr. and Robert Gibby, Jr. examines subliminal perception by employing classical conditioning techniques at a subliminal level.

The subjects were presented with ten nonsense syllable at a subliminal level, five of which were paired with an electric shock.

Subjects were then administered four tests for discrimination.

It was found that the subception effect described in prior studies can be empirically verified and that classical conditioning can take place at a level below conscious awareness.

Bell, P.D. (1986). The interspersal technique of Milton Erickson: Testing an operational definition. Fielding Institute. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46 (10-B), pp 3586-3587. ISSN: 0419-4209.

In this study, Paul Bell tested the hypothesis that an embedded message in a taped story would impact subjects differently than the same story without an embedded message.

Hostile messages were embedded within a fairy tale, and the volume level of the hostile/aggressive words was systematically lowered or raised in the context of a the story.

Skin conductance, semantic differential scores, and a content analysis were used to measure subject's responses to the embedded hostile message.

The hypothesized hostile message had no measurable effect on the subjects.

The operational definition of the interspersal technique was shown to be inadequate.

Recommendations were made for specific and systematic research into embedded auditory messages and the interspersal technique of Dr. Milton Erickson.

Bellack. A.S. & Williamson, D.A. (1982). Obesity and anorexia nervosa in D.M. Doleys, R.L. Meredith and A.R. Ciminero (Eds). Behavioral medicine: Assessment and treatment strategies. New York, Plenum.

Bellach and Williamson reported a positive correlation between subliminal suggestion and weight control.

Beloff, J. (1973). The subliminal and the extrasensory. University of Edinburgh, Scotland. Parapsychology Review, 4 (3), pp 23-27.

John Beloff compares ESP and subliminal perception.

ESP differs from subliminal perception in that ESP requires no sensory contact.

He states that the two are similar in the way they decode, process, and then shift information from unconscious to conscious awareness.

It is concluded that ESP may be regarded as a compromise between the mind omniscient and awareness filtered of everything not pertaining to biological needs.

Bender, B.G. (1973). Spatial interactions between the red- and green-sensitive color mechanisms of the human visual system. Imperial College, Applied Optics Section, London, England. Visual Research, 13 (12), pp 2205-2218.

The effects of subliminal annuli on the increment threshold of a central test spot, and the supraliminal annuli on the flicker threshold of a central test were used to psychophysically study spatial interactions in the visual system.

Previous evidence indicates that subliminal interactions occur at a level before the optic chiasma, while supraliminal interactions occur more centrally. Interactions were therefore tested at two levels in the visual system.

The visual stimuli were selected to stimulate individual spectral classes of color mechanisms, particularly interactions between red- and green-sensitive channels of foveal vision.

For both types of measurement interactions between center and surround regions of receptive fields occurred only between like spectral response mechanisms, whereas interactions within the center of receptive fields also occurred between the spectral mechanisms.

Ben-Hur, A. (1979). The relationship of systematic desensitization and the activation of symbiotic merging fantasy to speech anxiety reduction among college students.New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (5-B), pp 2351-2352.

Amos Ben-Hur compares the relationship of systematic desensitization and the activation of symbiotic merging fantasy to speech anxiety reduction.

Benson, H. (1979). The mind/body effect. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Herbert Benson shows that man has the power to influence the sympathetic nervous system, which is generally considered involuntary.

Berlin, P.D. (1984, March). An evaluation: Can subliminal messages be used to control shrinkage? Peter Berlin Report. (Price Waterhouse Newsletter), pp 5-6.

Peter Berlin argues in favor of using subliminal messages to control shrinkage.

It has been found that by playing inaudible messages shoplifting and employee theft is deterred.

Bernstein, B.R. (1986). The effects of subliminal symbiotic and oedipal stimuli on weight loss in obese women. New York University. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46, (8-B), 2795. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Bonnie Bernstein examined the effects of subliminal symbiotic and oedipal stimuli on weight loss in obese women.

Bernstein, J.H. & Eriksen, C.W. (1965). Effects of "subliminal" prompting on paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 1, pp 33-38.

Berry, D.M. (1985). Effects of educative/support groups and subliminal psychodynamic activation on bulimia in college women. University of California, Davis. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (11-B), p. 3612. ISSN: 0419-4209.

Diana Berry examined the effects of group therapy and subliminal psychodynamic activation on bulimia.

Bevan, W. (1964a). Subliminal stimulation: a pervasive problem for psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 61 (2), pp 84-92.

Bevan, W. (1964b). Contemporary problems in adaption level theory. Psychological Bulletin, 61 (3), pp 161-187.

Bevan, W. & Pritchard, J.F. (1963). Effect of "subliminal" tones upon the judgment of loudness. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66.

Bianki, V.L. & Kurochkin, V.A. (1976). Callosal influences on the focus of maximum activity in the visual cortex during subliminal stimulation. Biol. Nauki., (7), pp 76-81. ISSN: DA3B-0000, Language: RUSSIAN.

Bianki & Kurochkin examined the effect of subliminal stimulation on the influence of the Corpus Callosum on the focus of maximum activity in the visual cortex.

Black, R.W. & Bevan, W. (1960). The effect of subliminal shock upon the judged intensity of weak shock. American Journal of Psychology, 73.

Blakkan, R. (1982). Fear and loving in regulation land: Liquor marketers learn to live within the rules and like it/what some of the fuss is about. Advertising Age, 53 (34), pp M-22-23, M-26. ISSN: 0001-8899.

Renee Blakkan discusses the liquor business in the USA.

Due to the fear of even more government regulations and maybe even the return to the pre-prohibition abuses, the liquor market is amongst the most tightly controlled and self-restricted industries in the U.S.

Among the areas under discussion for changes in the federal laws regulating the advertising and marketing of alcohol is the use of subliminal advertising.

Block, M.P. & Vanden Bergh, B.G. (1985). Can you sell subliminal messages to consumers? Michigan State University. Journal of Advertising, 14 (3), pp 59-62. ISSN: 0091-3367.

Martin Block and Bruce Vanden Bergh conducted a telephone survey of 330 adults to determine consumer attitudes toward the use of subliminal stimulation techniques in a self-improvement product.

Consumers responses reflected a concern about being influenced to do something they did not want to do.

The study also found that although consumers believed subliminal advertising could affect behavior, they were also skeptical toward the use of subliminal messages for the purpose of self-improvement.

The study found that those consumers most favorable toward the subliminal technique had prior experience with computers and video equipment and appeared to be less educated, younger, and more often unmarried than those subjects less favorable toward the subliminal technique.

Those found to be most aware and concerned about the use of subliminal advertising were found to be white, well-educated and affluent, whereas those more favorable to the use of subliminal techniques for self-improvement were found to be less educated and to be experiencing some family problems.

Blum, G.S. (1975) Reply to Jennings and George. University of California, Santa Barbara. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41 (3), pp 957-958.

Gerald Blum criticizes L.B. Jennings and S.G. George's attempted replication of his study on perceptual vigilance ad defense.

He stresses that, (a) the replication was not satisfactory because of shortcomings in method, including use of a different set of stimuli and that, (b) Jennings and George missed the theoretical point that a subjects report is the result of a perceptual-cognitive sequence of events.

Boardman, W. K. & Gladstone S. (1962). Effects of subliminal anchors upon judgments of size. Perceptual Motor Skills, 14.

Bonnet, E.B. (1974). The utilization of audio tapes in hypnosis. Journal of the American Institute of Hypnosis. 15 (2), pp 82-87, 92.

Eldon Bonnet discusses the use of audio tapes in hypnoanalysis.

Three areas of utilization are discussed: (a) aid in self-improvement, (b) use during times of sleep, and (c) general updating of current literature for the practitioner.

Bonnet argues that there is no such thing as "sleep learning," as the term is commonly used. He therefore discusses and recommends audio tape "twilight state" imprinting programs.

Borgeat, F. (1983). Psychophysiological effects of two different relaxation procedures: Progressive relaxation and subliminal relaxation. Louis-H, Lafontaine Hospital, Psychiatric Research Center, Montreal, Canada. Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa, 8 (4), pp 181-185. ISSN: 0702-8466.

Francois Borgeat compared the physiological effects of progressive relaxation and subliminal relaxation. The experimental technique involved the audition of soft music subliminal suggestions of relaxation.

The subjects participated in a four week training with these two methods in two laboratory testing sessions (one for each method).

During the training frontal EMG, heart